Optional Subjects for HAS Mains (Paper-V Only One Paper : 200 Marks)
Candidates
may choose any one optional subject from amongst the list of optional subjects
and their syllabus:
BOTANY
Part-I
I) Biology and diversity of
lower plants or Cryptogams [(Algae, Fungi, Lichens, Bryophytes and
Pteridophytes], Microbes/Microbiology, Plant Pathology and Palaeobotany: Algae
and Fungi: Classification, Distribution in West Himalayas and India, Economic
importance, Structure and Reproduction of algae and fungi. Life histories of
Nostoc, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Oedogonium, Spirogyra, Chara, Vaucheria,
Dictyota, Batrachospermum, Synchytrium, Pythium, Phytophthora, Albugo,
Rhizopus, Saccharomyces, Aspergillus, Penicillum, Morchella, Ustilago,
Puccinia, Agaricus and Alternaria. Comparison between algae and fungi. Lichens:
General account of lichens and their economic importance.
Microbes/Microbiology: Structure, Classification, Reproduction, Physiology and
Mode of infection of Viruses and Bacteria. Role of microbes in agriculture,
industry, medicine and pollution control. Plant Pathology: Symptoms, mode of
infection and control of important fungal, bacterial and viral diseases with
special reference to diseases common in Himachal Pradesh. Molecular basis of
infection and disease resistance. Physiology of parasitism and control
measures. Fungal toxins. Bryophytes and Pteridophytes: Classification,
Distribution in West Himalayas and India, Economic importance, Structure and
Reproduction of bryophytes and pteridophytes. Evolution of gametophyte and
sporophyte in Bryophytes. Evolution of stelar system, Apogamy, Apospory,
Heterospory and Seed habit in Pteridophytes. Life histories of Riccia,
Marchantia, Pellia, Porella, Anthoceros, Sphagnum, Funaria, Polytrichum,
Psilotum, Selaginella, Equisetum, Adiantum and Marsilea. Comparison among
Archegoniatae. Palaeobotany: Introduction to palaeobotany, some basic
principles and techniques. Short account of fossil algae, Naiadita, Rhynia,
Asteroxylon, Lyginopteris and Pentoxylon.
II) Biology and diversity of
Phanerogams or Spermatophytes (Gymnosperms and Angiosperms): Comparison among
Tracheophytes. Distribution of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in West Himalayas
and India. Life histories of Cycas, Pinus and Gnetum. Morphology and Anatomy:
Tissues and Tissue systems. Meristems. Morphology and anatomy of root, stem and
leaf. Structure of Vascular Cambium and its role in wood and bark formation.
Normal and anomalous secondary growth (Dracaena, Tinospora, Boerrhavia and
Nyctanthes). Structure of wood and bark. Embryology: Structure of anther and
ovule. Development of male and female gametophytes. Pollination. Fertilization
and Development of Seed. Development and function of Endosperm. Patterns of
Embryo development. Polyembryony. Apomixis. Applications of Palynology in
angiosperms. Taxonomy: Principles of nomenclature, classification and
identification. Modern Trends in Taxonomy. Classification of Gymnosperms.
Comparative account of various systems of Angiosperm classification. Salient
features of the following families Cycadaceae, Pinaceae, Ginkgoaceae,
Ephedraceae, Gnetaceae, Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), Rosaceae,
Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae, Malvaceae, Apiaceae
(Umbelliferae), Asclepiadaceae, Solanaceae, Lamiaceae (Labiatae),
Cucurbitaceae, Asteraceae (Compositae), Liliaceae, Orchidaceae and Poaceae
(Graminae).
III) Plant Resources
Utilization, Economic and Ethno Botany, Plant Breeding and Biostatistics: Plants
as sources of Food, Fibers, Wood/Timber, Drugs, Oils, Latex/Rubber, Paper,
Starch, Beverages, Spices and Condiments, Gums and Resins, Tannins and Dyes,
Insecticides. Ornamental plants. Biomass as a source of energy. Energy
plantations. Importance of Ethno-botany in Indian context.
Underexploited/Underutilized Plants [Winged or Goa Bean (Psophocarpus
tetragonolobus); Jojoba or Hohoba (Simmondisa chinensis), Guayule or Wuyule
(Parthenium argentatum), Leucaena or Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) and Triticale
(Triticosecale)]. A general account of Edible Wild Plants. Origin of cultivated
plants. Centers of origin. Methods and Modes of reproduction in relation to
breeding self pollinated, cross pollinated, vegetatively propagated and
apomictic plants. Introduction, Selection and Hybridization (pedigree,
backcross, mass selection, bulk method). Male sterility and heterosis breeding.
A general account of Inbreeding depression and Heterosis; Exploitation of
Hybrid Vigour; Production of Hybrids, Composites and Synthetics. Uses of
genetic engineering, polyploidy, mutations and apomixes in plant breeding and
crop improvement. Role of cell and tissue culture in propagation and enrichment
of genetic diversity. Plant breeding techniques in wheat, rice, sugarcane and cotton
only. Biostatistics: Mean, Median, Standard deviation and Coefficient of
variation.
Part-II
I) Environmental Biology
(Plant Ecology, Plant geography, Principles of Biodiversity and Conservation):
Scope of Ecology. Biotic and abiotic components. Plant Communities. Plant
Succession. Ecological adaptations. Biogeochemical cycles. Vegetation and
Forest Types of India with particular reference to Himachal Pradesh.
Deforestation, Aforestation and Social forestry. Soil erosion, wastelands and
reclamation. Environmental pollution and its control including
phytoremediation. Bioindicators. Global warming. Concepts of Biosphere,
Ecosystems, Biodiversity, in situ and ex situ Conservation, Endemism and Hot
spots. Plant genetic resources and their importance. Factors contributing to
the loss of forest biodiversity. IUCN categories of Threat and Red Data Books.
Role of Botanical gardens and Herbaria. Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD). Sovereign rights and Intellectual Property Rights.
II) Plant Physiology and
Biochemistry: Absorption and Conduction of Water. Mineral Absorption. Role of
elements and mineral deficiencies. Transpiration. Mechanisms of stomatal
movements. Respiration. Photorespiration. Photosynthesis. Anatomy of C3 and C4
plants. Nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen metabolism. Enzymes and coenzymes. Plant
Growth and Movements. Photoperiodism and Vernalization. Plant Hormones.
Dormancy and germination of seeds. Photomorphogenesis. Stress physiology with
respect to temperature, water and salinity stress. Physiology of flowering.
Fruit ripening. Chemical foundations of biology: Physico-chemical properties of
water, pH, acids, bases, buffers, types of bonds and their importance, free
energy, resonance and isomerisation. Structure and functions of Carbohydrates,
Lipids/Fats, Amino acids, Peptides, Proteins and Nucleic acids.
III) Cell Biology, Genetics,
Evolution, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: Techniques of cell biology,
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Cell theory. Cell as a unit of structure and function,
ultra-structure of cell and its various organelles (chloroplasts, mitochondria,
endoplasmic, reticulum, ribosomes, endosomes, vacuoles, lysosomes,
peroxysomes). Extracellular matrix or ECM. Cell wall and plasma membrane.
Nucleus, Nucleolus, Nuclear pore complex (NPC), Chromatin and Nucleosome.
Nucleic acids − their structure, reproduction and role in protein biosynthesis.
DNA polymorphism. The physical and chemical structure of chromosomes. Mitosis
and Meiosis. Molecular control involving check points in cell division cycle.
Structural and Numerical changes in chromosomes. Structure, behaviour and
significance of polytene, lampbrush and B-chromosomes. Pre and Post Mendelian
concept of Genetics. Laws of inheritance. Chromosome theory of inheritance.
Gene and Allele concepts. Linkage, Crossing over and Gene mapping. Genetic
Code. Regulation of gene expression. Sex chromosomes and sex-linked
inheritance. Sex determination. Biochemical and molecular basis of Mutations.
Extra chromosomal / Cytoplasmic inheritance. Evidences, Mechanisms and Theories
of organic evolution. Micropropagation. Cell, tissue, organ and protoplast
culture. Genetic engineering. Methods of gene transfer and transgenic crops.
Development and use of molecular markers. Fermentation technology.
Biofertilizers.
COMMERCE AND ACCOUNTANCY
Part-I
ACCOUNTING, TAXATION &
BUSINESS FINANCE
ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING
Meaning and Scope of
Accounting: Need, Development, Book keeping and Accounting, Users of
Accounting, Branches of Accounting, Objectives of Accounting.
Accounting
Principles: Concepts and Conventions
Accounting Transactions: Accounting
cycles, Double Entry System, Journals, Ledgers, Trial Balance
Classification of Income and
Expenditure: Subsidiary Books, imprest system of cash, Bank Reconciliation
Statements.
Final Accounts: Manufacturing Accounts, Trading Accounts, Profit
and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Rectification of errors.
Depreciation: Depreciation
Accounting
Self Balancing System and Sectional Balancing System
Branch Accounts
Accounts
of Non- Trading Organization
Consignments Accounts
Hire purchase and Instalment
System Accounting
Issue of Shares, Forfeiture, and Reissue of Shares,
Redemption of Shares, Issue and Redemption of Debentures
Valuation of Goodwill
and Shares
Final Accounts of Companies, Final Accounts of Insurance and Banking
Companies, Accounting for Amalgamation of Companies excluding Inter- Companies
Holdings. Reconstruction Schemes
Consolidated Balance Sheet of Holding
Companies with one subsidiary only
International Accounting Standards (outline
only)
COST ACCOUNTING
Nature and Scope of Cost
Accounting: Cost Concepts and Classification, Methods and
Techniques, Installation of
Costing System, Concept of Cost Audit
Accounting for Material Control:
Techniques, Pricing of material, Treatment of Material losses Accounting for
Labour: Control Procedures, Labour Turnover, Idle Time, Piece Rates, Incentives
Schemes
Accounting for Overheads: Classification and Departmentalization,
Absorption of Overheads, Determination of Overhead Rates, Under and Over
Absorption of Overheads and treatment. Cost Ascertainment: Unit Costing, Job
and Contract Costing. Process Costing excluding inter- process profits,
Operating Costing, Joint and By products.
Standard Costing and Variance
Analysis
Marginal Costing and its application in Decision Making
AUDITING
Meaning and Objectives of
Auditing, Types of Audit, Internal Audit.
Audit Process, Audit
Programme, Audit and Books, Working Papers, Evidences, Consideration for
commencing an Audit, Routine Checking and Test Checking.
Internal Check System
and Internal Control, Audit Procedure, Vouching, Verification of assets and
liabilities.
Audit of limited companies:
Audit of Companies, Company Auditor; Appointment, Powers, Duties &
Liabilities.
Divisible Profits and
Dividend Auditors Report
Audit of Banking Companies,
Insurance Companies, Educational Institution Investigation, Recent Trends in
Auditing
TAXATION & BUSINESS
FINANCE
TAXATION
Basic Concepts: Income,
Agriculture Income, Casual Income, Assessment Year, Previous Year, Gross Total
Income, Total Income, Tax Evasion and Avoidance.
Basis of Charge, Scope of
Total Income, Residence Status and Tax Liability, Income not forming part of
Total Income.
Heads of Income: Salaries, Income from House Property, Profits
and Gains of Business and Profession, Capital Gain, Income from Other Sources
Computation
of Tax Liability: Individual, HUF and Firm.
Set Off and Carry Forward of
Losses, Deduction from Gross Total Income. Tax Deduction at Source, Advance Tax
Payment, Assessment Procedure, Tax Authorities Appeals, Penalties. INDIRECT
TAXES
Central Excise: Nature and Scope of Central Excise Important Terms and
Definitions under the Central Excise Act, General Procedures of Central Excise,
Clearance and Excisable Goods, Concession to Small Scale Industry under Central
Excise Act, CENVAT
Customs: Role of Customs in International Trade, Important
Terms and Definitions under the Customs Act 1962, Assessable value, Baggage,
Bill of Entry, Dutiable Goods, Duty Exporter, Foreign Going Vessel, Aircraft
Goods, Import Manifest, Importer Prohibited Goods, Shipping Bill of Landing,
Export Manifest, Letter of Credit, Kinds of Duties; Basic, Auxiliary,
Additional or Countervailing, Basics of Levy Advalorem, Specific duties,
Prohibition of Export and Import of Good and Provisions regarding Notified
& Specified Goods, Import of Goods, Free Import and Restricted Import; Type
of Import, Import of Cargo, Import of Personal Baggage, Import of Stores.
Clearance
Procedure for Home Consumption, for Warehousing, for Re-export, Clearance
procedure for Import by Post Prohibited Exports, Canalized Exports, Exports
against Licensing, Type of Exports of Cargo, Export of Baggage, Export of Cargo
by land, sea and air routes. Central Sale Tax Act 1956 and H.P. Value Added
Tax- 2005
FINANCAIL MANAGEMENT
Financial Management:
Financial Goals, Profit vs. Wealth Maximization, Financial
Functions-Investment, Financing, and Dividend Decisions, Financial Planning.
Capital
Budgeting: Nature of Investment Decisions, Investment Evaluation Criteria
Profitability Index: NPV and IRR Comparison.
Cost of Capital: Significance of
Cost of Capital, Calculating Cost of Debt, Preference Share, Equity Capital,
and Retained Earning, Combined (Weighted) Cost of Capital.
Management of
Working Capital: Nature of Working Capital, Significance of Working Capital,
Operating Cycle and Factors determining of Working Capital Requirements,
Management of Working Capital ,Cash, Receivables, and Inventories.
Part-II
BUSINESS ORGANISATION,
BUSINESS LAWS & BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
BUSINESS ORGANISATION
Concepts of Business,
Commerce and Industry Business System
Business Environment: Macro
and Micro environment, Environment Analysis
Social Responsibility of Business
Forms
of Business Organization: Sole Trader, Partnership, Companies, HUF and
Co-operative Organization., Comparative utility of various Organizations.
Promotion
of a Venture: Opportunity Analysis, Legal requirement for establishment of a
New Unit and Documentation required.
Marketing and Advertisement
Stock Exchange
Management:
Concepts, Functions and Process
Planning: Concepts and Types
Decision Making;
Concepts and Process.
Management By Objectives. Corporate Planning
Organizing:
Concepts, Nature, Process and Significance, Authority and Responsibility,
Centralization, Departmentalization, Organization Structure, Forms and
Contingency factors. Motivation: Concepts and Theories
Leadership: Concepts and
Styles.
Communication: Nature, Process and Networks
Managerial Control:
Concepts and Process, Techniques of Control.
BUSINESS LAWS & BUSINESS
ENVIRONMENT
The Indian Contract Act
(1872): Including indemnity, Guarantee, Bailment and Pledge
Sales of Goods Act
1930
Negotiable Instrument Act. 1881
The Consumer Protection Act 1986
The
Payment of Bonus Act. 1965
Employees Provident Fund Act 1952 (brief only)
Corporate Personality, Kinds of Companies, Promotion and Incorporation of
Companies, Memorandum of Association, Articles of Association, Prospectus,
Shares, Share Capital, Members, Share Transfer and Transmission
Company
Meetings and Winding up of Companies.
Company Secretary: Appointment,
Functions, Rights and Duties, Qualifications Removal, Writing of Minutes of
Company Meetings
Indian Business Environment: Concept, Components, and
Importance
Economic Environment of Business & Economic Trends, Income,
Savings, Investment, Industry, Trade, Money
Economics Policies: Monetary &
Fiscal Policy, Industrial policy, Export-Import Policy, Budget, New economic
policies
Political Environment: Relationship between Govt. and Business, Legal
Environment; Introduction to Business Law MRTP, FERA, FEMA, and SEBI Act.
Social
Environment: Social institutions, Groups & Systems.
International
Environment: International institution, GATT, WTO, WORLD BANK, IMF etc.
ECONOMICS
Part-I
Economic choice, consumer
behaviour, producer behaviour and market forms.
Full employment and says law,
under-employment equilibrium, Keynes theory of employment and income
determination, critique of Keynesian theory.
Functions of money,
measurement of price level changes, money and real balances, monetary
standards, Quantity Theory of Money. The money multiplier. Theories of
determination of interest rate. Theories of inflation and methods to control
inflation. Goals and instruments of monetary management in closed and open
economies.
Role of public finance in the
developing economies. Fiscal economics: an overview of allocation, distribution
and stabilization functions. Market failure, public goods and externalities.
Principles of taxation, theories and measures of tax incidence, burden of
public debt, management of public debt. Pure theory of public expenditure.
Types of budget deficit.
International trade: tariffs,
forms of protection, the rate of exchange, balance of payments. Aid versus
trade controversy. WTO regime: structure, rationale, objectives, strategies,
policies and global pattern of MNC’s activities. Critical assessment of the
stabilization programmes of the international institutions i.e. IMF, IBRD and
the World Bank. International trade and environmental issues.
Economics growth, development
and sustainable economy. Welfare indicators and measures of growth. Human
development indices, the Basic Needs Approach. Poverty- development and environment
nexus. Structural change and economic development. Trade off between equity and
growth.
Planning and market
mechanism. Relation between state planning and growth, changing roles of market
and plans in growth and economic policy. State intervention and privatization
debate. Decentralized planning and peoples participation.
Part-II
Indian economy in the post
independent era: pattern, trend and factors determining
national and per
capita income in India, absolute and relative poverty in India. Factors
determining employment in India. Relation between income-poverty and
employment. Poverty eradication and social welfare programmes and their
performance. Impact of economic reforms on poverty and employment in the Indian
economy.
Agriculture in India:
Agriculture Policy, size of agricultural holdings and efficiency, Green
Revolution and technological changes, agricultural prices and terms of trade,
agricultural prices and production, land reforms, current problems and issues
of Indian agriculture. WTO agreement on agriculture (AOA) and its implications
for India. Relationship between agriculture and industry.
Industry: process, rationale,
objectives strategies and policies in the Indian context. Employment
implications of industrialization, Appropriate industrial technology for India.
Phases of industrial growth and changes in industrial structure in India.
Public sector performance in India. The concept of joint sector. Foreign
collaborations and multinationals in India. Debate on disinvestment of public
sector undertakings. Large versus small scale industry debate in India. Impact
of New Industrial Policy on Indian industry.
Money and Banking: the
monetary institutions of India, factors determining demand for and supply of
money, techniques of money supply regulation under open economy.
GEOGRAPHY
Part-I
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY
SECTION
A- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Geomorphology: Earth
movements- orogenic and eperiogenic (folding and faulting), earthquakes and
volcanoes, isostasy, Wegner’s theory of continental drift and plate tectonics.
Rocks- origin and composition, weathering, mass wasting, concept of cycle of
erosion, interruption in the cycle of erosion. Geomorphic agents and processes:
Erosion, transportation and deposition- fluvial, glacial, aeolian, (arid),
karst and coastal (marine) landscapes.
Climatology: Atmospheric
moisture: Humidity, evaporation and condensation; hydrological cycle; types of
precipitation, world patterns of rainfall. Air masses and fronts: concept,
classification and properties. Atmospheric disturbance: tropical and temperate
cyclones; thunderstorms and tornadoes. Climatic classification; Koppen’s
classification.
Oceanography: Circulation of
oceanic waters: waves, tides and currents; currents of the Atlantic, Pacific
and Indian oceans. Marine deposits and coral reefs; Oceans as storehouse of
resources for the future.
Environmental Geography:
Man-environment interrelations with concept of eco- system. Utilization of
natural resources and environmental hazards. Emerging environmental issues-
deforestation, global warning, conservation of bio-diversity.
SECTION B- HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
Population Geography:
Demographic cycle concepts of over population, under population
and optimum
population; population problems in developed and developing countries;
Migration- causes, patterns (past and present) and consequence. Number,
density, growth and distribution of population, population pressure and
resource utilization. Population explosion and food security.
Economic Geography:
Distribution and utilization of water, mineral and energy resources; their
economic and environmental significance and conservation. Types and
distribution of forests and fisheries- their economic and environmental
significance and conservation. Major soil types and their distribution;
problems of soil erosion and soil conservation. Mineral Resources- Iron ore and
energy resources- coal and petroleum.
Rural and Urban Settlements:
Definition, types and patterns of rural settlements, origin and evolution of
urban settlements; functional classification of urban places; trends, patterns
and problems of urbanization in the world.
Part-II
SECTION A- GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
Physical Settings: India: A
land of diversities; unity within diversities;
A detailed study of
physiographic divisions of India, drainage systems of India. Soil types of
India- their distribution and characteristics; vegetation types and their
distribution.
Population and Agriculture:
Spatial patterns of population distribution and growth; Socio- economic
implications of population explosion. Major Agricultural Crops: Rice, Wheat,
Cotton and Tea. Green Revolution and its impact; Problems of Indian
Agriculture.
Minerals, Power Resources and
Industries: The status of their use and need for conservation. Minerals- Iron
ore, Power Resources- Coal, Petroleum and Hydro-power. Spatial patterns of Iron
and Steel and Cotton Textile Industries, Industrial regions of India.
Geography of Himachal
Pradesh: Geomorphology, Climate, Drainage, Vegetation, Hydropower and
Horticulture.
INDIAN HISTORY
Part-I
Chalcolithic cultures: Indus
civilization, patterns of settlements, economic and social
organization.
Recent debates on the decline of the Indus civilization.
Society and culture in the
Vedas and Upanishads: textual and archaeological evidence.
Mahavira and Gautam Buddha:
their teachings and popularity among contemporary
Mahajanapadas.
The Mauryan Empire: sources
and their chronology, Ashoka's policy of Dhamma. The
nature of the Mauryan state.
Decline of the Mauryan empire.
Post-Mauryan period in Indian
history: polity and society. Religion and culture.
Urbanization and trade.
Sangam texts and Tamil society. Shilppadikaram.
Emergence of classical
patterns during the Gupta period. Evolution of art and architecture.
Development
of ideas in science and mathematics. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita.
Seventh century: major powers
in the north and the south. Changes in political structure,
economy, social
structure and religion.
Early medieval India, AD
700-1200. Tripartite struggle in north India. The rise of the Cholas in the
south. Debates on Indian feudalism. Village communities in the south. Typology
of urban centres. The Arab conquest of Sind. Alberuni’s India: society and
science. The emergence of temple as an institution.
The emergence of the
Ghaznavide Empire. The Ghorian invasions and their impact. Causes of the
success of the Ghorian Turks. The Delhi Sultanate: Balban. Alauddin Khalji and
his agrarian and economic measures.
Fragmentation of the
Sultanate, and the rise of provincial kingdoms: Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Malwa
and Bahmanids. The Vijayanagar empire. Evolution of Indo-Persian literature.
Bhakti and Sufi movements in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Part-II
The Mughal Empire: early
expansion under Babar and Humayun. Sher Shah’s
administrative and revenue
measures. Akbar and his India. Establishment of jagir and mansab systems.
Akbar’s policy towards chieftains, especially Rajputs. Akbar’s religious
policy. Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama. Mughal-Rajputs relations under Jahangir,
Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. Debate on the nature of the Mughal state. Economy and
Society. Urban centres. Trade with Europe through Dutch, English and French
companies.
Culture during the Mughal
court: literature, painting and architecture. Religious trends: Bhakti and
Sufism.
The Eighteenth century
debate. Decline of the Mughal empire. The emergence of the regional potentates
in the Deccan, Bengal and Awadh. The rise of the Marathas, and the Afghans.
India on the eve of the British conquest.
Factors behind British
success against Indian regional powers: Mysore, Maratha power, and Bengal.
Annexation of Panjab and Sind. The nature of residency system and ‘doctrine of
lapse’. Structure of the British Raj up to 1857.
Indian resistance to the
British rule: 1857—causes, course, nature and impact. Changes in British
administrative and economic policies after 1858. Socio-cultural impact of
colonial rule. Christian missionary activities. Social and religious reform
movements in Bengal and other areas. Railways. Commercialisation of
agriculture. Growth of modern industry. Trade and commerce: 1858-1939.
The rise of Indian
Nationalism. The evolution of modern associations. Peasant and tribal
uprisings. The emergence of the Indian National Congress. Collaboration and
confrontation of the Moderates and Extremists. Partition of Bengal, 1905.
Swadeshi and Home Rule Movements.
Gandhian methods of mass
mobilization: Rowlett Satyagraha, Khilafat and Non- cooperation. Civil
disobedience movement. The Swarajist politics. Simon Commission and Nehru
Report. From Dominion status to Purna Swaraj. Second civil disobedience. States
People’s movement.
Act of 1935. Congress
Ministeries, 1937-1939. The communal problem. India during the Second World
War. The Cripps Mission. The Quit India Movement. Constitutional negotiations
and the Transfer of Power.
Achievement of Freedom and
Partition of India. Integration of Indian states. The democratic constitution,
1950. Planning and industrialization.
Towards Contemporary World:
Some concepts Renaissance and its social roots. European State system.
Industrial Revolution: Britain, Japan, China. The emergence of the
nationalities, and the making of the Nation States. Two World Wars. United
Nations Organisation.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Part-I
PART –A
Political Theory:
The State: Theories of Origin
of the State: Historical or Evolutionary Theory, Social
Contract Theory,
Marxist Theory.
Theories of Function of
States: Liberal-welfare Theory, Marxist Theory.
The Concept of Sovereignty:
Monistic and Pluralistic Views.
Key Concepts: Rights,
Property, Liberty, Equality, Justice and Law.
Political Theories:
Liberalism, Socialism, Fascism, Marxism and Anarchism.
Concept of Government Forms
of Government, Parliamentary and Presidential System,
Unicameralism and
Bicameralism, Federal and Unitary System, Theory of Separation of
Powers,
Electoral System.
Power, Legitimacy and
Authority.
PART-B
The Nature and Impact of
British Colonial Rule in India.
Indian National Movement and
Political Development Since from 1885.
(The Emphasis on this Section will be on
a Thorough Knowledge of Forces and Ideas that led to Institutional changes.
There will be no Specific Question on Acts)
Indian System of Government:
(a) Executive
(President, Prime Minister, Cabinet).
(b) Legislature and
Judiciary.
(c) State Government
Structure: The Interaction among Executive, Legislature and Judicial
Institutions at Union and State Level.
(d) Federal Structure
and Dynamics: State of Federal Polity Today.
(e) Role of Bureaucracy
in Socio-Economic Development.
(f) Civil Liberties,
Human Rights.
(g) Fundamental Rights,
Directive Principles of State Policy.
(h) Amending Process.
(i) Political Parties:
Their Ideology, Social Base and Political Performance.
(j) Pressure Groups in
India.
(k) Role of Caste in
Indian Politics, Communalism, Regionalism, Regional Imbalances
and Regional
Movements
Note: Emphasis will be on the
Study of Institutional Structure and their actual Working.
Part-II
PART-A
Decolonisation, Emergence of
New Nations and Its Implications on nature of International
Relations.
Cold War –Origin,
Development, Détente, Post-Cold War World Order with Special
Reference to the
Disintegration of the U.S.S.R.
Concept of Non-alignment
–Development of Non-alignment Movement, Political and
Economic Dimension of
Non-alignment Movement, Changing Character of Non-
alignment Movement in the
Context of Post-Cold War Era.
New International Economic
Order: Globalisation, W.T.O., North-South Dialogue, South-
South Cooperation.
U.N.O: It’s role in the
Developing International Order.
PART-B
Government and Politics of
U.K., U.S.A., China & Switzerland.
Note: “Candidates are
required to have the Knowledge of the actual Working of Executive, Legislature,
Judiciary, Political Parties and Pressure Groups of the countries Mentioned
Above”.
PSYCHOLOGY
Part-I
Science and Psychological
Research:
Assumptions of science, characteristics of scientific method; Theory
and facts. Nature of psychological research. Correlational and experimental.
Hypothesis Testing and making
Inferences:
Population and sample, Random sampling, sampling distribution,
standard errors of mean, SD and r; df ; Nature and assumptions of t and ANOVA,
level of significance; Type I and Type II errors in inference making.
Non-parametric Test. Application of statistical techniques (t-test, one-way
ANOVA, correlation, chi-square, sign test and Fried man test).
Methods of Psychology:
Characteristics and
components of methods in psychology (induction, deduction, introspection).
Observation, survey, laboratory and field experiments, clinical and case study.
Experimental and quasi experimental methods.
Construction and
standardization of test:
Theory and procedure, Item analysis, Reliability,
Validity. Development of norms and interpreting test scores cross validation.
Human Development:
Concept
and theories of human development; methods of Study; Biological, cultural and
social factors in human Development; Socialization: Role of family, peer,
school and Media.
Attention and perception:
Selective
attention and its theories. Factors influencing attention (set and
characteristics of Stimulus). Sensation: Concept of threshold, absolute and
Difference thresholds, signal detection and vigilance. Definition and concept
of perception, biological factors in perception. Perceptual organization
factors influencing space and depth perception, size estimation and readiness.
Learning:
Concept and
theories of learning (Pavlov, Skinner and Piaget). The process of extinction,
spontaneous recovery, generalization And discrimination programmed learning,
self instructional Learning concepts, types and schedules of reinforcement.
Modelling and social learning.
Memory and forgetting:
Concept
and definition of memory and forgetting, encoding, Storage and retrieval
processes. Short term and long term memories. Factors influencing retention and
forgetting. Theories of forgetting (Repression, Decay and interference
theories). The concept of reminiscence.
Section-B
Thinking and problem solving:
Processes
of concept formation. Reasoning and problem solving. Nature and measurement of
creativity, factors affecting creativity and creative thinking. Information
processing. Decision making and judgement.
Intelligence and aptitude:
Concept
and definition of intelligence and aptitude. Nature and theories of
intelligence. Measurement of intelligence and aptitude. Concept and measurement
of emotional and multiple intelligence.
Motivation and emotion:
Definition
and concepts of instincts, needs, drives and motives. Theories of motivation
and their applications ( drive reduction theory, Maslows motivational
hierarchy). Social motivation: Achievement, power affiliation motives.
Assessment of motivation. Emotions: Definition and concept, theories,
physiological correlates. Development expression measurement and control.
Emotional Disorders: Stress and other causes of emotional disorders; Neurotic
and psychotic disorders.
Personality:
Concept and
definition. Theories of personality (Psychoanalytical, socio cultural,
interpersonal and developmental, humanistic, behaviouristic trait and type
approaches).
Techniques of assessment
(Psychometric and projective). MMPI, EPI, TAT, PF and
Roschach. Indian approaches
to personality. Training for personality development.
Attitudes, Values and
interests:
Definitions, concepts & components of attitudes, values and
interests. Nature and function of attitudes, attitude and behaviour. Theories
of reasoned and planned behaviour. Formation, change and measurement of
attitudes. Attitude changes and strategies for stering values.
Communication:
Communication
models: Verbal and non verbal communication. Language and social interaction.
Process and type of communication. Barriers in communication. Effective
communication Interpersonal attraction and communication.
Recent Trends:
Computer
application in psychological laboratory and psychological testing. Artificial
intelligence, computer phobia, studies of dreams, meditation, hypnotic and drug
induced states. Extrasensory perception, Intersensory perception.
Part-II
Issues and Applications
Section-A
Psychological Assessment:
Nature
and scope of human assessments. Principles of psychological test construction
(Item analysis, Reliability, validity and development of norms). Types of
psychological test (Group, performance & verbal). Assessment of general
ability and special abilities (aptitudes) assessment personality (projective
and non-projective tests). Limitations of psychological tests, ethical issues
in the use of psychological tests.
Psychology of Health:
Nature,
scope and development of health psychology. Concept of health, positive health,
well being, happiness and ill health. Psychological disorders (Anxiety
disorders, Mood disorders, Schizophrenia and delusional disorders, personality
disorders and disorders due to psychoactive substance use, stress disorders).
Casual factors of psychological disorders. Factors influencing positive health,
well being, life style and quality of life.
Approaches to treatment and
therapy:
Psychodynamic therapies, Behaviour therapies, Cognitive Therapies,
Humanistic and existential therapy, Indigenous therapies (yoga, Reiki,
Meditation), Biofeedback therapy. Prevention and rehabilitation of mentally
ill.
Organizational Behaviour:
Perspective
for understanding OB: open system approach, Human relations perspective,
Socio-technical approach. Person in the organization: Personality definitions
and measurement, concept of skill, self awareness; Matching personality and
job. Theories of motivation, leadership and power, conflict negotiation and
managing stress.
Application of psychology to
educational field:
Principles undertaking effective teaching- learning process,
gifted, retarded, learning disabled and their training. Training for improving
memory and academic achievement. Personality development and value education.
Educational, vocational, guidance and career counselling. Use of psychological
tests in educational institutions.
Community Psychology:
Definition
and concept of community psychology. Role of community psychologists in social
change. Use of small groups in social action: Arousing community consciousness and
actions for handling social problems. Group decision making and leadership for
social change.
Rehabilitation Psychology:
Role
of psychologist in primary, secondary and tertiary prevention programmes.
Organising of services for rehabilitation of physically, mentally and socially
challenged persons, including elderly. Rehabilitation of persons suffering from
substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, criminal behaviours. Rehabilitation of
victims of violence and HIV/AIDs victims.
Section B
Psychology and social
inequality poverty and deprivation:
Social psychology and social issues.
Increasing role of social psychology in social problems. Social psychological
analysis of deprivation; consequences of deprivation; poverty-theories of
poverty, Concomitants of poverty; inequality; sources of deprivation;
Inequality and political mobilization, Social justification, Social
interventions to remove injustice.
Psychological strategies for
social integration:
The concept of social integration. The problem of caste,
class, power, religion and language. Conflicts and prejudice. Nature and
components of prejudice. Acquisition of prejudice and reduction of prejudices.
Application of psychology in
Information Technology and Communication Technology: The present scenario of
information technology and the communication technology boom and the role of
psychologists Selection and training of psychology professionals to work in the
field of IT and Communication Technology, Distance learning through IT and
Communication Technology. E-Commerce and multilevel marketing. Impact of TV and
Computers Psychological consequence of recent developments of IT and Computers.
Application of psychology in
the field of defence:
The concepts of Military psychology, Aviation psychology
and psychological warfare. Role of psychologists in defence selection,
recruitment and training of personnel. Role of counselling in facilitating the
adjustment of personnel to military life. Psychological disorders due to war.
Human engineering in defence. Psychological tests for defence personnel.
Application of psychology for
Peace and Non-violence:
Concept of peace and non-violence, factors influencing
peace, non-violence and aggression, obstacles to peace, Peace through coercive
power, non-violence, world order, personal and community transformation.
Conflict resolution through communication, negotiation and arbitration.
Processes and skills in healing stress & trauma in post conflict society skill
development in international negotiation.
Psychology and Economic
development:
Achievement motivation and economic development Characteristics of
entrepreneurial behaviour. Motivating and training people for entrepreneurship
and economic development. Women entrepreneurs. Consumer rights and consumer
courts.
Application of psychology to
environment:
Effect of noise, pollution
and atmospheric conditions, density and crowding on behaviour. Effect of
perception, preferences and awareness of environment on environment. Nature and
consequences of environment deprivation. Socio-psychological dimensions of
environmental impact. Creating environmental awareness. Social movements
(Chipko, Tehri, Narmada). Naturalistic observation and field surveys.
Other applications of
psychology:
Sports psychology- improving performance of sports personnel,
political behaviour, voting behaviour, development of ideology and use of
social groups in politics, understanding of corruption, bribery and other forms
of Anti social behaviours, strategies to deal with terrorism and violence,
concept of social justice and injustice. Social interventions to remove
injustice. Issues of human and social development and quality of life and
development.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Part-I
Administrative Theory
Introduction:
Meaning, Scope and
Significance of Public Administration. Evolution of Pubic
Administration and
its present status. Public Administration as an Art, Science or Craft.
Approaches to the study of Public Administration i.e. Behavioural, Structural
Functional Mechanical, Historical, Legal and Post Behavioural. Comparative
Public Administration: Meaning, nature and scope.
Theories of Organization:-
Scientific management (F. W. Taylorand the Scientific Management Movement).
Classical Theory (Henry Fayol, Urwick & Gullick), Bureaucratic Theory (Max
Weber) Human Relations Theory (Elton Mayo and others).
Principles of Organization:
Hierarchy, Unity of Command span of control, Authority and Responsibility,
Coordination, Supervision, Centralization and Decentralization, Delegation.
Structure of Public
Organizations: Chief Executive, Topologies of Chief Executive and their
functions. Forms of Public ‘Organizations: Ministries and Departments,
Corporations, Companies, Boards and commission. Line, Staff and Auxiliary
Agencies.
Administrative Behaviour:
Decision Making with special reference to Herbert Simon. Theories of
Leadership. Communication, Morale, Motivation (Maslow and Herzberg).
Behavioural Approach (Chester Bernard).
Public Policy:- Relevance of
Public Policy Making in Public Administration. Process of Policy making and its
implementation. Models of Policy making.
Accountability and control:
Concepts of accountability and control. Legislative, Executive and judicial
control over Administration. Citizen and Administration. People participation.
Administrative corruption, Redressal of citizens grievance, Lokpal &
Lokyakutas.
Administrative Law: Meaning,
Significance and growth of administrative law. Delegated legislation, Rule of
Law, Liability of Administration in Contracts and Torts. Administrative
Discretion and judicial control. Principles of Natural Justice, Judicial review
of Administrative action.
Personnel Administrative:
Objectives of personnel administration. Importance of Human Resource
Development. Recruitment, training and career development, Performance
Appraisal, Promotions. Discipline, Employer-employee relations. Integrity and
code of conduct. Grievance redressal mechanism. Neutrality and Anonymity.
Financial Administration:
Concept of Budget, preparation and Execution of Budget. Control over public
Expenditure. Performance budgeting, Resource mobilization: Tax and
non-tax
sources. Accounts and Audit.
Administrative Reforms:
Meaning, process and obstacles. Techniques of administrative
improvement: O
& M, work study, work measurement. Role of Information Technology
in
administrative improvement E-Governance.
Comparative and Development
Administration: Meaning nature and scope of Comparative
public administration.
Models of Comparative Public Administration: Bureaucratic and Ecological
(contribution of Fred Riggs). The concept, scope and significance of
development Administration, Political, Socio-cultural context development
administration. Concept of sustainable development and concept of Good
Governance.
Part-II
Indian Administration
Evolution of Indian
Administration:- Kautilya, Mugal Period, British and Modern Periods.
Constitutional frame work:-
Parliamentary Democracy, Federalism, Socialism,
Secularism. Human Rights and
National Human Rights Commission.
Structure of Union Government
and Administration:- President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Cabinet
Committees. Cabinet Secretariat, Prime Ministers Office, Central
Secretariat,
Ministries and Departments Boards and Commissions, Field Organizations.
Centre-State Relations:-
Legislative, Administrative and Financial Relations.
Law and Order
administration:- Role of Central and State agencies in Maintenance of Law
and
order.
Public Enterprises:- Types of
Public Enterprises, Contribution of Public Sector to the
Indian economy.
Management of Public enterprises in India:- Composition, powers, functions and
types of Board of Public Enterprises. Accountability and control of public
enterprises:- Parliamentary, Ministerial and Audit Controls. Changing role of
the public sector in the context of liberalization.
Control of Public
Expenditure:- Parliamentary Control Role of Finance Ministry, Comptroller and
Auditor General.
Public Services: All India Services,
constitutional position. Role and Functions of all India services. Union Public
Services Commission. State services and the state public service commissions.
Training of All India services. Constitutional protection available to civil
services.
Administrative Reforms:-
Reforms since independence since independence. Reports of Administrative
Reforms Commissions Problems of Implementation
Machinery for Planning:-
Role, composition and review of functions of the planning commission. Role of
National Development Council. Process of plan formulation at Union and state
levels. Decentralized planning.
Welfare Administration:-
Administration for the welfare of weaker sections with special reference to
SC’s STs Women and children.
Major issues in Indian
Administration:- Relationship between political and permanent executives,
integrity in administration. Values in public service and administrative
culture. Development and environmental issues. Right to information.
Local Government:- Panchayati
Raj and Urban Local Government. Structure, functions and Finances of Local
bodies. Main features of 73rd & 74th constitutional Amendments. Major rural
and urban development programmes and their management.
District Administration:-
Role and importance of district administration. Changing Role of District
Collector/Deputy Commissioner. Land and Revenue Administration. Relationship of
District administration with functional departments at district level. District
rural development agency.
State Government and Administration:-
Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers. Chief Secretary, State
Secretariat. Directorates.
SOCIOLOGY
Part-I
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology – Meaning, nature
and scope, emergence of sociology, its relationship with other social sciences,
importance of sociology.
Study of Social Phenomena –
Social research, the scientific method, objectivity and subjectivity in social
sciences.
Basic Concepts – Association,
institution, community, social groups, culture.
Social Structure – Status, role,
norms and values.
The Individual and Society - Individual and society,
socialization; culture and personality;
leadership, social control.
Institutions
– Family, marriage and kinship-forms, functions and their changing dimension,
education, religion, power and authority.
Social Stratification – Meaning,
forms and functions; caste, class and their changing dimensions; future of
caste.
Types of Societies – Rural, urban and tribal communities-distinctive
characteristic, rural- urban continuum, problems of tribal people, tribal
development.
The Pioneers in Sociology – Augste Comte- positivism; Karl Marx-
materialist conception of history and class struggle; Max Weber- authority and
power, the Protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism ; and Durkheim- social
solidarity, division of labour and its pathological forms.
Social Change – Meaning,
factors and theories of social change; processes of social change –
sanskritization, westernization, and modernization; globalization and
socio-economic change; trends of change in Indian society.
Science, Technology and
Society – Social responsibility of science and technology; human critique of
science and technology, environmental issues- pollution of air, water and soil;
energy crisis; social impact assessment, environmental awareness, people’s
action.
Population and Society -
Interface between population and social development, population problems,
population policy, population controls.
Note: The candidate will be accepted to
illustrate theory by facts and to analyze problems with the help of theory.
They will be accepted to be particularly conversant with Indian problems.
Part-II
SOCIETY IN INDIA
Indian Society – Traditional
bases - Varnashrama and dharma; unity and diversity; cultural pluralism and
Unitarianism.
The Structure and Composition
of Indian Society – villages, towns and cities; rural-urban linkages; tribes-
problems, constitutional safeguards and development; weaker sections- dalits,
women and minorities, population profile and related issues.
Basic Institutions – Family-
forms and changing dimensions; marriage- forms, functions and changing
dimensions; kinship- types and regional variations.
Indian Caste System – Origin
of caste, its socio-economic and cultural dimensions, issues of equality and
social justice; scheduled castes and backward classes -problems, safeguards and
welfare.
Rural Class Structure –
Classes in India, agrarian classes, peasant movements, land reforms,
commercialization of agriculture and change in land use pattern, emerging
agrarian unrest, leadership and its changing dimensions.
Social Change – Impact of
reform movements, social movements and factors of planned change-Five Year
Plans, legislative and executive measures; impact of liberalization,
privatization and globalization; trends of change.
Power Structure – Working of
the democratic political system in a traditional society; socio- cultural basis
of political parties; panchayati raj and urban local self-government.
Issues and Problems –
Poverty, inequalities of caste and gender; dowry, domestic violence,
intergenerational conflict, problems of elderly; regional disparities;
ecological degradation and environmental pollution; white collar crime,
corruption, drug addiction, suicide.
ZOOLOGY
Part-I
NON – CHORDATES AND CHORDATES
Classification of
non-chordate and chordate phyla, their general characters and relationship.
PROTOZOA:
Structure, life cycle and pathogenicity (if any) of:- Euglena, Giardia,
Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria,
Paramaecium, Vorticella, Balantidium. Nutrition, locomotion, reproduction.
PORIFERA: Structure and life history of Sycon, Leucosolenia, Canal system,
skeleton. COELETERA T A: Structure and life history of Hydra, Obelia, Aurelia,
Skeleton, polymorphism, corals and coral reefs.
PLATYHELMINTHES: Structure and
life history of Gyrodactylus, Schistosoma, Clonorchis, Paragonimus, Taenia,
Echinococcus Origin and evolution of parasitism, parasitic adaptations, larval
forms.
NEMATHELMINTHES: Structure and life history of Ascaris, Wuchereria,
Ancylostoma, Necator.
ANNELIDA: Structure and life history of Nereis,
Pheretima, Hirudo, Metamerism, coelom and rochophore.
ARTHROPODA: Structure and
life history of Palaeomon, scorpion, Culex, Anopheles, Aedes,
Musca, Larval forms and
parasitism in crustacea, economic importance of insects, metamorphosis,mouth
parts, respiration and social organization in
insects.
MOLLUSCA: Shell,
locomotion, feeding habits, respiration, structure and life history of Unio,
Pila, Sepia, torsion and detorsion in gastropods.
ECHINODERMATA: Water vascular
system, feeding, larval forms, adaptive radiation, structure and life history
of Asterias, sea-urchin.
HEMICHORDA T A: Affinities of hemichordata, general
features and life history of Balanoglossus.
CHORDATA: Origin of chordates,
characteristics of subphyla, classification up to order UROCHORDATA: General
characters and life history of Herdmania. CEPHALOCHORDATA: General characters
and life history of Branchiostoma VERTEBRATA: Comparative anatomy of various
systems of vertebrates (integument, skeleton, digestive system, circulatory
system, respiratory system, nervous system, excretory system, reproductive
system, sense organs) Pisces : Locomotion, migration, accessory respiratory
organs. Amphibia : Origin of tetrapods, parental care.
Reptilia : Origin of
reptiles, interrelationship of reptilian groups.
Aves : Origin of birds,
migration.
Mammalia : Origin of mammals, endocrine glands.
CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Structure
and functions of cell and its organelles, cell division, organization and Role
of microtubules and microfilaments, structure and types of DNA, DNA
replication, transcription promoters and transcription factors, translation,
genetic code, regulation of gene expression, chromosomes (structure, types,
functions) sex determination, Mendelian and non - Mendelian inheritance.
Part-II
APPLIED ZOOLOGY, ECOLOGY
& BEHAVIOUR, TECHNIQUES & BIOSTATISTICS, EVOLUTION, EMBRYOLOGY,
HISTOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY & BIOCHEMISTRY, IMMUNOLOGY, BIOTECHNOLOGY
APPLIED ZOOLOGY: Aquaculture,
sericulture, apiculture, poultry keeping, bacterial and viral diseases
(cholera, typhoid, small pox, measles, AIDS), pest management.
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR : Green
– houses effect, pollution and its effects, population growth, wild life
sanctuaries in India, competition and niche theory, ecological aspects of
behaviour, social behaviour, biological rhythms.
TECHNIQUES AND BIOST A
TISTICS: Electrophoresis, centrifugation, spectrophotometry, electron
microscopy, chi square test, student t test, F test, standard deviation.
EVOLUTION: Origin of life, theories and evidences of organic evolution,
microevolution, eras, evolution of horse and man, drift and speciation.
EMBRYOLOGY:
Germ cell, differentiation and migration (in amphibians, birds and mammals ),
oogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation in frog and
chick, embryonic induction, organogenesis, development and types of placenta, in
vitro fertilization and embryo transfer.
HISTOLOGY: Histology of skin,
stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas, lung, kidney, ovary, testis, spleen and
thymus of mammals.
PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY:
Blood (composition and functions), physiology of digestion, physiology of
respiration, physiology of reproduction, physiology of excretion, muscle
contraction, hormones secreted by pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and
pancreas, feed back inhibition, photoreception, chemoreception, stress and its
adaptation, carbohydrates (classification, structure and functions), lipids (
classification, structure and functions ), proteins ( amino acids, types and
structure of proteins ), conjugated proteins, porphyrins, ATP-cycle, pathways
of carbohydrate catabolism, electron transport chain, oxidative
phosphorylation.
IMMUNOLOGY : Cells and
tissues of immune system, classes and properties of antigen, antibodies and
their functions, T – cell ( maturation, activation and differentiation ),
complement system, antigen – antibody reactions, hypersensitivities,
transplantation, MHC, autoimmune diseases, vaccines.
BIOTECHNOLOGY: Principles and applications of recombinant DNA technology, development of transgenics, construction of genomic libraries, PCR, DNA finger printing, copyrights of genetically engineered cells.
BIOTECHNOLOGY: Principles and applications of recombinant DNA technology, development of transgenics, construction of genomic libraries, PCR, DNA finger printing, copyrights of genetically engineered cells.
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